August 30, 2013

雑記


 人と人の間に違いを見つける.そして,比較する.「どうして違うのか」を考える時に必要なことは,どこが共通で,どこが違うのかをはっきりさせることだ(「どうして同じなのか」を考えるときには,「一見すると違うはずなのに〜」もしくは「本当は違うはずなのに」という条件が必要になってくるので問いの頻度は減る).これは,見せかけの差異が真の差異と類似性によって説明されると考えるのと同じだ.
 社会的な差異(収入や地位)を比較するときには,これらが努力によるものなのか,それとも努力では説明できないものなのかが重要になってくる.さらに,努力で還元できないものは,環境と才能の二つに分けられる.基本的に,努力するかかしないかは各人の意志にゆだねられる.そのため,社会的な差異に他者が介入する際には,本人の努力に還元できない部分に注意が(時として同情的に)集まる.介入が可能なのは,努力で還元できない環境のみだ.
 さらに,努力,環境,才能の三つには観察できるかどうかという区分も成り立つ.基本的に,観察しやすいものの方が過剰に評価されるはずであるから,これら三つの要因のうち,観察されにくいものは過小に評価される傾向にある(ちなみに,観察可能性は社会によって異なる.アメリカでIQが頻繁に議論に上がるのも,アメリカにおいてはIQは測りやすいものとされるからだと思う.つまりアメリカでは才能が人々の差異を説明する際に過剰に評価される一方,環境要因は過小に評価されていた).
 したがって,社会的な差異が問題となるときは,本当に違うのかどうか,努力で還元できるのか,還元できないとすればそれは環境なのか才能なのか,さらにはそれらが観察できるのかどうかが重要になってくる.
 双子研究は,類似性に着目したものである.双子研究が重要なのは,真の差異を見つけることはかなり難しいからだ.そのためには,類似性をできる限り高めた比較をすることが次善策として考えられる(統計で帰無仮説を棄却するのと似ている).人々の間の類似性は基本的に本人の努力では説明できないものなので,環境か才能かという議論がしやすいというメリットもある.
 単純な比較になるが,日本に比べ,アメリカで双子研究が盛んなのは,本人の努力による成功が美徳とされる一方で,才能による成功も奨励されている裏返しなのかなと思う.「アメリカン・ドリーム」と言いつつ,本人の成功は努力で説明できない部分が大きいというのは衝撃なのだろう(経済格差が肯定されるのは,それが本人の努力で説明できるという信仰があったから)そして,努力で説明できないとなると,才能決定論になってしまう.
 日本では学歴競争が激しいが,それは才能ではなく努力によって説明される.また,最近まで経済格差がない平等な国とされてきたので,努力か,環境か,それとも才能かという問題は注目されてこなかった.才能が注目されていないのは,昨今の格差論議が自己責任論か環境決定論かの間で揺れていることから示される.アメリカとは異なり,才能による差異も本人の努力に回収されやすいので,自己責任論は過剰になりやすいのかもしれない.

August 13, 2013

文献リスト改訂


Belmont, L., and F. A. Marolla. 1973. “Birth Order, Family Size, and Intelligence A study of a total population of 19-year-old men born in the Netherlands is presented.” Science 182(4117):1096–1101.
Black, S. E., P. J. Devereux, and K. G. Salvanes. 2005. “The more the merrier? The effect of family size and birth order on children's education.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 120(2):669–700.
Black, S. E., P. J. Devereux, and K. G. Salvanes. 2011. “Older and Wiser? Birth Order and IQ of Young Men.” CESifo Economic Studies 57(1):103–20.
Blake, J. 1989. Family Size and Achievement. Univ of California Press.
Blake, J. 1989b. “Number of siblings and educational attainment.” Science 245(4913):32–36.
Breen, R., and J. O. Jonsson. 2005. “Inequality of Opportunity in Comparative Perspective: Recent Research on Educational Attainment and Social Mobility.” Annual Review of Sociology 31(1):223–43.
Butcher, K. F., and A. Case. 1994. “The effect of sibling sex composition on women's education and earnings.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 109(3):531–63.
Chu, C. C., Y. Xie, and R.-R. Yu. 2007. “Effects of sibship structure revisited: Evidence from intrafamily resource transfer in Taiwan.” Sociology of Education 80(2):91–113.
Conley, D. 2000. “Sibship Sex Composition: Effects on Educational Attainment.” Social Science Research 29(3):441–57.
Conley, D., and R. Glauber. 2006. “Parental educational investment and children’s academic risk estimates of the impact of sibship size and birth order from exogenous variation in fertility.” Journal of Human Resources 41(4):722–37.
Datcher, L. 1982. “Effects of community and family background on achievement.” The review of Economics and Statistics 64(1):32–41.
Davis, D. J., S. Cahan, and J. Bashi. 1977. “Birth order and intellectual development: The confluence model in the light of cross-cultural evidence.” Science 196(4297):1470–72.
Duncan, B. 1967. “Education and social background.” American journal of sociology 72(4) 363–72.
Duncan, O. D., and B. Duncan. 1955. “A methodological analysis of segregation indexes.” American sociological review 20(2):210–17.
Edwards, L. N., and M. K. Pasquale. 2003. “Women's higher education in Japan: Family background, economic factors, and the Equal Employment Opportunity Law.” Journal of the Japanese and International Economies 17(1):1–32.
Featherman, D. L., and R. M. Hauser. 1976. “Sexual inequalities and socioeconomic achievement in the US, 1962-1973.” American sociological review 41(3) 1462–83.
Hauser, R. M., and H.-H. D. Kuo. 1998. “Does the gender composition of sibships affect women's educational attainment?.” Journal of Human Resources XXXIII: 644–57.
Hauser, R. M., and R. S.-K. Wong. 1989. “Sibling resemblance and intersibling effects in educational attainment.” Sociology of Education 62:149–71.
Heer, D. M. 1985. “Effects of sibling number on child outcome.” Annual Review of Sociology 27–47.
Hill, M. S., and G. J. Duncan. 1987. “Parental family income and the socioeconomic attainment of children.” Social Science Research 16(1):39–73.
Jaeger, M. M. 2008. “Do Large Sibships Really Lead to Lower Educational Attainment?: New Evidence from Quasi-Experimental Variation in Couples' Reproductive Capacity.” Acta Sociologica 51(3):217–35.
Jæger, M. M. 2006. “Deos sibship size affect educational attainment?.” Social policy and welfare Working Paper.
Jæger, M. M. 2009. “Sibship size and educational attainment. A joint test of the Confluence Model and the Resource Dilution Hypothesis.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 27(1):1–12.
Kaestner, R. 1996. “Are brothers really better? Sibling sex composition and educational achievement revisited.”, NBER Working Paper Series 5521.
Kanazawa, S. 2012. “Intelligence, Birth Order, and Family Size.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38(9):1157–64.
Kristensen, P., and T. Bjerkedal. 2007. “Explaining the Relation Between Birth Order and Intelligence.” Science 316(5832):1717–17.
Kuo, H.-H. D., and R. M. Hauser. 1997. “How does size of sibship matter? Family configuration and family effects on educational attainment.” Social Science Research 26(1):69–94.
Lu, Y., and D. J. Treiman. 2008. “The effect of sibship size on educational attainment in China: Period variations.” American sociological review 73(5):813–34.
Mare, R. D., and M.-S. Tzeng. 1989. “Fathers' ages and the social stratification of sons.” American journal of sociology 95(1): 108–31.
Ono, H. 2001. “Migration patterns among Japanese university students.”
Ono, H. 2004. “Are sons and daughters substitutable?.” Journal of the Japanese and International Economies 18(2):143–60.
Powell, B., and L. C. Steelman. 1990. “Beyond sibship size: Sibling density, sex composition, and educational outcomes.” Social Forces 69(1):181–206.
Raymo, J. M. 2003. “Educational attainment and the transition to first marriage among Japanese women.” Demography 40(1):83–103.
Sieben, I., J. Huinink, and P. M. de Graaf. 2001. “Family background and sibling resemblance in educational attainment. Trends in the former FRG, the former GDR, and the Netherlands.” European Sociological Review 17(4):401–30.
Solon, G. 1999. “Intergenerational mobility in the labor market.” Handbook of labor economics 3:1761–1800.
Steelman, L. C., and B. Powell. 1989. “Acquiring capital for college: The constraints of family configuration.” American sociological review 74(1) 844–55.
Steelman, L. C., B. Powell, R. Werum, and S. Carter. 2002. “RECONSIDERING THE EFFECTS OF SIBLING CONFIGURATION: Recent Advances and Challenges.” Annual Review of Sociology 28(1):243–69.
Teachman, J. D. 1987. “Family background, educational resources, and educational attainment.” American sociological review 52(4): 548–57.

August 12, 2013

きょうだい関係の論文


Black, S. E., P. J. Devereux, and K. G. Salvanes. 2005. “The more the merrier? The effect of family size and birth order on children's education.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 120(2):669–700.
Blake, J. 1989. Family Size and Achievement. Univ of California Press.
Breen, R., and J. O. Jonsson. 2005. “Inequality of Opportunity in Comparative Perspective: Recent Research on Educational Attainment and Social Mobility.” Annual Review of Sociology 31(1):223–43.
Butcher, K. F., and A. Case. 1994. “The effect of sibling sex composition on women's education and earnings.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 109(3):531–63.
Conley, D. 2000. “Sibship Sex Composition: Effects on Educational Attainment.” Social Science Research 29(3):441–57.
Conley, D., and R. Glauber. 2006. “Parental educational investment and children’s academic risk estimates of the impact of sibship size and birth order from exogenous variation in fertility.” Journal of Human Resources 41(4):722–37.
Datcher, L. 1982. “Effects of community and family background on achievement.” The review of Economics and Statistics 64(1):32–41.
Duncan, B. 1967. “Education and social background.” American journal of sociology 363–72.
Duncan, O. D., and B. Duncan. 1955. “A methodological analysis of segregation indexes.” American sociological review 20(2):210–17.
Edwards, L. N., and M. K. Pasquale. 2003. “Women's higher education in Japan: Family background, economic factors, and the Equal Employment Opportunity Law.” Journal of the Japanese and International Economies 17(1):1–32.
Featherman, D. L., and R. M. Hauser. 1976. “Sexual inequalities and socioeconomic achievement in the US, 1962-1973.” American sociological review 462–83.
Hauser, R. M., and H.-H. D. Kuo. 1998. “Does the gender composition of sibships affect women's educational attainment?.” Journal of Human Resources 644–57.
Hauser, R. M., and R. S.-K. Wong. 1987. Sibling resemblance and inter-sibling effects in educational attainment.
Heer, D. M. 1985. “Effects of sibling number on child outcome.” Annual Review of Sociology 27–47.
Hill, M. S., and G. J. Duncan. 1987. “Parental family income and the socioeconomic attainment of children.” Social Science Research 16(1):39–73.
Jaeger, M. M. 2008. “Do Large Sibships Really Lead to Lower Educational Attainment?: New Evidence from Quasi-Experimental Variation in Couples' Reproductive Capacity.” Acta Sociologica 51(3):217–35.
Jæger, M. M. n.d. “DOES SIBSHIP SIZE AFFECT EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT?.”
Kaestner, R. 1996. “Are brothers really better? Sibling sex composition and educational achievement revisited.”
Kuo, H.-H., and R. M. Hauser. 1994. How Does Size of Sibship Matter?
Lu, Y., and D. J. Treiman. 2008. “The Effect of Sibship Size on Educational Attainment in China: Period Variations.” 1–23.
Manski, C. F. 2000. Economic Analysis of Social Interactions.
Mare, R. D., and M.-S. Tzeng. 1989. “Fathers' ages and the social stratification of sons.” American journal of sociology 108–31.
Ono, H. 2001. “Migration patterns among Japanese university students.”
Ono, H. 2004. “Are sons and daughters substitutable?.” Journal of the Japanese and International Economies 18(2):143–60.
Powell, B., and L. C. Steelman. 1990. “Beyond sibship size: Sibling density, sex composition, and educational outcomes.” Social Forces 69(1):181–206.
Raymo, J. M. 2003. “Educational attainment and the transition to first marriage among Japanese women.” Demography 40(1):83–103.
Sieben, I., J. Huinink, and P. M. de Graaf. 2001. “Family background and sibling resemblance in educational attainment. Trends in the former FRG, the former GDR, and the Netherlands.” European Sociological Review 17(4):401–30.
Solon, G. 1999. “Intergenerational mobility in the labor market.” Handbook of labor economics 3:1761–1800.
Steelman, L. C., and B. Powell. 1989. “Acquiring capital for college: The constraints of family configuration.” American sociological review 844–55.
Steelman, L. C., B. Powell, R. Werum, and S. Carter. 2002. “RECONSIDERING THE EFFECTS OF SIBLING CONFIGURATION: Recent Advances and Challenges.” Annual Review of Sociology 28(1):243–69.
Teachman, J. D. 1987. “Family background, educational resources, and educational attainment.” American sociological review 548–57.